PycURL Quick Start¶

Retrieving A Network Resource¶

Once PycURL is installed we can perform network operations. The simplest one is retrieving a resource by its URL. To issue a network request with PycURL, the following steps are required:

Create a pycurl.Curl instance.

Use setopt to set options.

Call perform to perform the operation.

Here is how we can retrieve a network resource in Python 3:

import pycurl
import certifi
from io import BytesIO

buffer = BytesIO()
c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'http://pycurl.io/')
c.setopt(c.WRITEDATA, buffer)
c.setopt(c.CAINFO, certifi.where())
c.perform()
c.close()

body = buffer.getvalue()
# Body is a byte string.
# We have to know the encoding in order to print it to a text file
# such as standard output.
print(body.decode('iso-8859-1'))

This code is available as examples/quickstart/get_python3.py. For a Python 2 only example, see examples/quickstart/get_python2.py. For an example targeting Python 2 and 3, see examples/quickstart/get.py.

PycURL does not provide storage for the network response - that is the application’s job. Therefore we must setup a buffer (in the form of a StringIO object) and instruct PycURL to write to that buffer.

Most of the existing PycURL code uses WRITEFUNCTION instead of WRITEDATA as follows:

c.setopt(c.WRITEFUNCTION, buffer.write)

While the WRITEFUNCTION idiom continues to work, it is now unnecessary. As of PycURL 7.19.3 WRITEDATA accepts any Python object with a write method.

Working With HTTPS¶

Most web sites today use HTTPS which is HTTP over TLS/SSL. In order to take advantage of security that HTTPS provides, PycURL needs to utilize a certificate bundle. As certificates change over time PycURL does not provide such a bundle; one may be supplied by your operating system, but if not, consider using the certifi Python package:

import pycurl
import certifi
from io import BytesIO

buffer = BytesIO()
c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://python.org/')
c.setopt(c.WRITEDATA, buffer)
c.setopt(c.CAINFO, certifi.where())
c.perform()
c.close()

body = buffer.getvalue()
# Body is a byte string.
# We have to know the encoding in order to print it to a text file
# such as standard output.
print(body.decode('iso-8859-1'))

This code is available as examples/quickstart/get_python3_https.py. For a Python 2 example, see examples/quickstart/get_python2_https.py.

Troubleshooting¶

When things don’t work as expected, use libcurl’s VERBOSE option to receive lots of debugging output pertaining to the request:

c.setopt(c.VERBOSE, True)

It is often helpful to compare verbose output from the program using PycURL with that of curl command line tool when the latter is invoked with -v option:

curl -v http://pycurl.io/

Examining Response Headers¶

In reality we want to decode the response using the encoding specified by the server rather than assuming an encoding. To do this we need to examine the response headers:

import pycurl
import re
try:
    from io import BytesIO
except ImportError:
    from StringIO import StringIO as BytesIO

headers = {}
def header_function(header_line):
    # HTTP standard specifies that headers are encoded in iso-8859-1.
    # On Python 2, decoding step can be skipped.
    # On Python 3, decoding step is required.
    header_line = header_line.decode('iso-8859-1')

    # Header lines include the first status line (HTTP/1.x ...).
    # We are going to ignore all lines that don't have a colon in them.
    # This will botch headers that are split on multiple lines...
    if ':' not in header_line:
        return

    # Break the header line into header name and value.
    name, value = header_line.split(':', 1)

    # Remove whitespace that may be present.
    # Header lines include the trailing newline, and there may be whitespace
    # around the colon.
    name = name.strip()
    value = value.strip()

    # Header names are case insensitive.
    # Lowercase name here.
    name = name.lower()

    # Now we can actually record the header name and value.
    # Note: this only works when headers are not duplicated, see below.
    headers[name] = value

buffer = BytesIO()
c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'http://pycurl.io')
c.setopt(c.WRITEFUNCTION, buffer.write)
# Set our header function.
c.setopt(c.HEADERFUNCTION, header_function)
c.perform()
c.close()

# Figure out what encoding was sent with the response, if any.
# Check against lowercased header name.
encoding = None
if 'content-type' in headers:
    content_type = headers['content-type'].lower()
    match = re.search('charset=(\S+)', content_type)
    if match:
        encoding = match.group(1)
        print('Decoding using %s' % encoding)
if encoding is None:
    # Default encoding for HTML is iso-8859-1.
    # Other content types may have different default encoding,
    # or in case of binary data, may have no encoding at all.
    encoding = 'iso-8859-1'
    print('Assuming encoding is %s' % encoding)

body = buffer.getvalue()
# Decode using the encoding we figured out.
print(body.decode(encoding))

This code is available as examples/quickstart/response_headers.py.

That was a lot of code for something very straightforward. Unfortunately, as libcurl refrains from allocating memory for response data, it is on our application to perform this grunt work.

One caveat with the above code is that if there are multiple headers for the same name, such as Set-Cookie, only the last header value will be stored. To record all values in multi-valued headers as a list the following code can be used instead of headers[name] = value line:

if name in headers:
    if isinstance(headers[name], list):
        headers[name].append(value)
    else:
        headers[name] = [headers[name], value]
else:
    headers[name] = value

Writing To A File¶

Suppose we want to save response body to a file. This is actually easy for a change:

import pycurl

# As long as the file is opened in binary mode, both Python 2 and Python 3
# can write response body to it without decoding.
with open('out.html', 'wb') as f:
    c = pycurl.Curl()
    c.setopt(c.URL, 'http://pycurl.io/')
    c.setopt(c.WRITEDATA, f)
    c.perform()
    c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/write_file.py.

The important part is opening the file in binary mode - then response body can be written bytewise without decoding or encoding steps.

Following Redirects¶

By default libcurl, and PycURL, do not follow redirects. Changing this behavior involves using setopt like so:

import pycurl

c = pycurl.Curl()
# Redirects to https://www.python.org/.
c.setopt(c.URL, 'http://www.python.org/')
# Follow redirect.
c.setopt(c.FOLLOWLOCATION, True)
c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/follow_redirect.py.

As we did not set a write callback, the default libcurl and PycURL behavior to write response body to standard output takes effect.

Setting Options¶

Following redirects is one option that libcurl provides. There are many more such options, and they are documented on curl_easy_setopt page. With very few exceptions, PycURL option names are derived from libcurl option names by removing the CURLOPT_ prefix. Thus, CURLOPT_URL becomes simply URL.

Examining Response¶

We already covered examining response headers. Other response information is accessible via getinfo call as follows:

import pycurl
try:
    from io import BytesIO
except ImportError:
    from StringIO import StringIO as BytesIO

buffer = BytesIO()
c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'http://pycurl.io/')
c.setopt(c.WRITEDATA, buffer)
c.perform()

# HTTP response code, e.g. 200.
print('Status: %d' % c.getinfo(c.RESPONSE_CODE))
# Elapsed time for the transfer.
print('Time: %f' % c.getinfo(c.TOTAL_TIME))

# getinfo must be called before close.
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/response_info.py.

Here we write the body to a buffer to avoid printing uninteresting output to standard out.

Response information that libcurl exposes is documented on curl_easy_getinfo page. With very few exceptions, PycURL constants are derived from libcurl constants by removing the CURLINFO_ prefix. Thus, CURLINFO_RESPONSE_CODE becomes simply RESPONSE_CODE.

Sending Form Data¶

To send form data, use POSTFIELDS option. Form data must be URL-encoded beforehand:

import pycurl
try:
    # python 3
    from urllib.parse import urlencode
except ImportError:
    # python 2
    from urllib import urlencode

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/post')

post_data = {'field': 'value'}
# Form data must be provided already urlencoded.
postfields = urlencode(post_data)
# Sets request method to POST,
# Content-Type header to application/x-www-form-urlencoded
# and data to send in request body.
c.setopt(c.POSTFIELDS, postfields)

c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/form_post.py.

POSTFIELDS automatically sets HTTP request method to POST. Other request methods can be specified via CUSTOMREQUEST option:

c.setopt(c.CUSTOMREQUEST, 'PATCH')

File Upload - Multipart POST¶

To replicate the behavior of file upload in an HTML form (specifically, a multipart form), use HTTPPOST option. Such an upload is performed with a POST request. See the next example for how to upload a file with a PUT request.

If the data to be uploaded is located in a physical file, use FORM_FILE:

import pycurl

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/post')

c.setopt(c.HTTPPOST, [
    ('fileupload', (
        # upload the contents of this file
        c.FORM_FILE, __file__,
    )),
])

c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/file_upload_real.py.

libcurl provides a number of options to tweak file uploads and multipart form submissions in general. These are documented on curl_formadd page. For example, to set a different filename and content type:

import pycurl

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/post')

c.setopt(c.HTTPPOST, [
    ('fileupload', (
        # upload the contents of this file
        c.FORM_FILE, __file__,
        # specify a different file name for the upload
        c.FORM_FILENAME, 'helloworld.py',
        # specify a different content type
        c.FORM_CONTENTTYPE, 'application/x-python',
    )),
])

c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/file_upload_real_fancy.py.

If the file data is in memory, use BUFFER/BUFFERPTR as follows:

import pycurl

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/post')

c.setopt(c.HTTPPOST, [
    ('fileupload', (
        c.FORM_BUFFER, 'readme.txt',
        c.FORM_BUFFERPTR, 'This is a fancy readme file',
    )),
])

c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/file_upload_buffer.py.

File Upload - PUT¶

A file can also be uploaded in request body, via a PUT request. Here is how this can be arranged with a physical file:

import pycurl

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/put')

c.setopt(c.UPLOAD, 1)
file = open('body.json')
c.setopt(c.READDATA, file)

c.perform()
c.close()
# File must be kept open while Curl object is using it
file.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/put_file.py.

And if the data is stored in a buffer:

import pycurl
try:
    from io import BytesIO
except ImportError:
    from StringIO import StringIO as BytesIO

c = pycurl.Curl()
c.setopt(c.URL, 'https://httpbin.org/put')

c.setopt(c.UPLOAD, 1)
data = '{"json":true}'
# READDATA requires an IO-like object; a string is not accepted
# encode() is necessary for Python 3
buffer = BytesIO(data.encode('utf-8'))
c.setopt(c.READDATA, buffer)

c.perform()
c.close()

This code is available as examples/quickstart/put_buffer.py.